In 1967 CE, on the island of Santorini (or Thera), Spyridon Marinatos began excavating with a team into large deposits of pumice and ash, hoping to discover a vital Minoan settlement. The Greek archeologist believed that the eruption of Thira caused the collapse of Minoan civilization, and that evidence of their existence lay buried under layers of volcanic material and earth (“Archaeology/Akrotiri Digs”). Within a few years, the city of Akrotiri was uncovered, its public and private buildings, sewage systems, tools, furniture, and frescoes tampered with for the first time in approximately 3,600 years (“About Akrotiri”). However, the colorful wall paintings were the most intriguing aspect of the dig; at that time, they were considered to be the best preserved Mediterranean frescoes ever discovered from the Bronze Age ("Spyridon Marinatos").
Although initially destructive, the covering of ash and pumice preserved the elaborate frescoes found within the ancient city. Some of these wall paintings were discovered in a structure called the West House- named this because it was unearthed on the western half of the excavation site. The West House contained two rooms with frescoes- Rooms 4 and 5 (Sorenson 152 & Cartwright “Akrotiri Frescoes”); yet, the ruins of Room 5 were more lavishly decorated than Room 4, and contained “a miniature fresco frieze, which originally surrounded the upper part of all four walls” (Sorenson, Annette, pg. 151). The room was only 4 x 4 x 3 meters square and the images dated back to around 1,650 BCE (Strasser 4 & Stokstad 92). The small fresco frieze was positioned at eye level, and could be easily seen from any point in the small space. One of the most recognized and preserved parts of the frieze is the Flotilla Fresco- located on the top of the South Wall. Several pieces of information can be gathered about the Minoan culture from this one piece. By hypothesizing and comparing the fresco with similar art from trading civilizations, like Egypt, the painting’s similarities and differences can be highlighted. Many similarities exist between trading cultures, because the trade of items also brings about the trade of ideas and technology. These comparisons can help determine the reason a technique was used, the meaning of symbols and subjects, the cause of stylistic choices for the fresco, and the possible reason for the art’s creation. First, Minoan frescoes were created with a technique similar to one Egyptians used. Paints were created from minerals- like calcite, talc, and kaolinite- combined with alkaline resistant pigments and water. The pasty mixture emitted earth tones, bright blues and reds that are now associated with Bronze Age artwork (Westlake 7, 10-12). The Flotilla Fresco utilized these colors to create a cheerful and lively environment; this style contrasts heavily with the Egyptian’s more somber, methodical paintings. These tone difference can be explained by the art’s intended audience. Egyptian wall paintings within tombs or inside of palaces were created for Egyptian rulers as messages to their people and as part of a ritual to get into the afterlife; they were a display of power and a reminder of their importance or divinity. Minoan frescoes were found in both palace-like structures and upper class homes; their frescoes displayed several decorative aspects and could have been used as a display of wealth by the upper class. However, frescoes could also have been used to denote rooms for rituals and ceremonies, or to stand as a reminder of their dependency on the sea. The Flotilla Fresco displays both beauty and a narrative; it is believed to either be a recounting of a lost epic or a yearly festival dedicated to the life-giving sea. The two cultures also had a different approach to applying plaster. For most murals from 1,600 BCE, paint was layered over a base covering of limestone plaster. But, unlike the Egyptians, the Minoans painted on the limestone while it was still wet more often than when it was dry; this technique is called buon-fresco- or true fresco- and it required that the paintings be applied quickly and in sections. As the paint fuses completely with the wet plaster, the mural is more durable than fresco-secco ("Buon fresco"). Fresco-secco allows more detail and precision to be implemented into the painting, whereas buon-fresco preserves the brightness and hue of the color more adequately (Cartwright “Minoan Frescoes”). These benefits may explain why one culture would prefer one technique over the other. Second, the Minoans tended to create art centered around nature, landscapes, and special occasions- like festivals, or coming of age ceremonies- whereas the Egyptians used frescoes to immortalize rulers, and honor gods/goddesses. The difference in subject matter displays a difference in cultural values. Akrotiri was under a different type of governance; the Minoan people were not ruled by one leader or a pharaoh, but by a group of “aristocrats or aristocratic families who established a fluid and evolving power hierarchy” (Stokstad 84). This explains why the Minoans did not seem to utilize the hierarchic scale or create art centered around leader, but of daily life and nature. These two aspects were the most valued aspects of Minoan culture; several pieces of art are dedicated to nature and their culture’s uses of it. In the Flotilla Fresco, nature and humanity is abundant, colorful, and in harmony. Dolphins swim closely beside boats, animals run and hunt near the cities, and humans live closely within the mountainous earth. The fresco not only shows the people’s respect and reliance on nature, but also communicates a special occasion that celebrates these feelings. The Minoans’ unique style, values, and social structure is reflected in the Flotilla Fresco. The role of social class, the importance of nature, and the implication of religious activity are evident through imagery. The style of dress and boat used in the fresco are signs of class, wealth, and status. Egypt, like many other cultures, also used longer, more elaborate clothing as a sign of wealth and power. The figures in the fresco, although small and stylized, wear different styles of clothing. Individuals of the lowest status (either boatmen or a form of slave) wear only a cloth tied about the waist, and can be found rowing boats in the painting. Figures sitting and lounging in the more decorated ships don long robes, which denotes high status and may communicate that they are important participants in a ceremony or festival. Another sign of status in both cultures is the use and appearance of boats. In the Flotilla Fresco, boats range from plain and unpainted, to lavishly adorned with bells, structures for shade, ropes, painted animals, and flowers; these highly decorated boats are also oared by low-status members- another piece of evidence that these robed figures have wealth, status, and influence. The most elaborate boats are adorned with images of lions, which represent political and physical power in both Egyptian and Minoan cultures (Stokstad 92). In addition to the number of people and style of clothes, the number and appearance of decorated boats suggest that it may be a religious festival celebrating a Minoan value- sailing, the sea, or of nature in general (Cartwright “Akrotiri Frescoes”). Although Minoan frescoes were created a bit differently, the way in which figures are painted are very similar to the Egyptian style. Figures are shown in twisted perspective, with the chests displayed in a frontal position and the legs, feet, and head pointed as if in profile (Hendricks). Gender is also handled similarly by the two cultures; males are characterized by having a dark skin tone, whereas females were denoted by having much lighter skin colors. However, because the figures in this fresco are small, this can be difficult to perceive. Lastly, both cultures did not utilize perspective in their artwork, but relied on the positioning of objects, overlapping, and size. In the Flotilla Fresco, distance is indicated by positioning objects above or below another, and objects are all two-dimensional and seemingly flat. In conclusion, a lot of information about ancient civilizations can be gathered from one piece of artwork. Based on knowledge gathered from other civilizations that were known to have traded with the Minoans, the reasons for their stylistic choices can be inferred. The Minoans imported pottery and other artistic objects from the Egyptians and likely adapted their stylistic approaches to figures, symbols, and creating art; eventually, the culture made the style their own, and implemented their own values and concepts. Due to the differences in Minoan and Egyptian rule, the reason their artistic subjects differ can also be reasonably explained. Minoans were ruled by a group of ‘elites’ and the culture did not require images of rulers and kings, but of things that the culture valued, like the sea and daily activities. Much like the Egyptian’s concern with the afterlife and divinity, the Minoan’s value of ordinary life, festivals, nature, and the sea are evident and still communicable in the Flotilla Fresco. Work Cited “About Akrotiri”. Akrotiri Santorini Guided Tours. Notos Travel. Web. 5 Dec. 2015. “Archaeology/Akrotiri Digs”. Santorini.com. Santorini. Web. 5 Dec. 2015. Boundless. “Painting.” Boundless Art History. Boundless, 21 Jul. 2015. Web. 6 Dec. 2015. "Buon fresco". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2015. Web. 6 Dec. 2015 Cartwright, Mark. “Akrotiri Frescoes.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Ancient History Encyclopedia Ltd., 27 March 2014. Web. 6 Dec 2015. Cartwright, Mark. “Minoan Frescoes.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Ancient History Encyclopedia Ltd., 29 May 2014. Web. 6 Dec 2012. "Fresco." Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6Th Edition (2015): 1. Academic Search Premier. Academic Search Premier. Web. 6 Dec. 2015. Hendricks, Carol. “The Frescos of Akrotiri.” Art History Blogger. 5 Aug. 2012. Web. 6 Dec. 2015. "Spyridon Marinatos". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2015. Web. 5 Dec. 2015 Sorenson, Annette, et. al. “Miniatures of meaning – interdisciplinary approaches to the miniature frescoes from the west house at Akrotiri on Thera.” (2013): 149-162. Web. 7 Dec. 2015. Stokstad, Marilyn & Michael Cothren. Art History (Volume 1). Pearson, 2014. Print. Westlake, Polly et. al. “Studying pigments on painted plaster in Minoan, Roman and Early Byzantine Crete. A multi-analytical technique approach.” Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. (2011): 1413-1432. Web. 6 Dec. 2015.
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Originally written on: 25 September 2015
The Flotilla Fresco is an extensive and vibrant mural that was painted on a smoothed stone wall around 1650 BCE. Although ancient, this wall painting is complex, full of emotion, and bursting with activity and life; it contains several bright hues, line movements, and textures, as well as local wildlife, terrain, and human activity. The Flotilla Fresco appears to have been repaired in several places, which provides contrasting visual texture and noticeable differences in the painting's color quality and pallet. Overall, the mural's color, intended texture, and arrangement/activity of objects and figures represents a joyful remembrance and celebration of this people's life on sea, their cities on shore, and the surrounding nature. First, the mural's lively, varying hues with light values conveys an emotion and overall tone for the piece. Shades of golden and olive yellow, sapphire, steel, and Cambridge blue, maroon and mahogany red, russet brown, and white fill the image. This collection of color radiates feelings of joy, warmth, and excitement; together, these emotional triggers create a mood for the piece- one of celebration and liveliness. Secondly, the colors work as a compositional technique by splitting one form from another- which gives depth, provides visual texture, and creates a sense of motion. The grayish blue sea/sky (they appear to be one form) is heavily contrasted with the reds, browns, whites, and yellows of the mountain, boats, animals, and people. These color differences cause each image to be easily distinguishable to the viewer and makes the figures/terrain 'pop out' from the vast sea; even the dolphins, being part of the sea (sharing a similar blue color of the sky/sea), is lined with white and gold to bring it out of the water. Windows are a darkened brown, conveying an opening in the building, and the brightly painted shape of ships jut out almost fully from the lightly colored water, hinting at flotation. This sense of depth is created without perspective; color, size (only on the far right of the wall), overlapping shapes, and texture is utilized to denote distance. Texture in the Flotilla Fresco is caused by lines and color. Rough, brick buildings are represented in the two cities by thin, horizontal, black paint strokes (with an occasional vertical one) intermingled with golden yellows and browns. Brick buildings are adorned with textured roofs, painted doors (blue), and windows (dark brown) that have smooth textures and no lines; small details like this give spirit and a sense of reality to the town. Texture is also found in the surrounding mountainous terrain. Rocks and dirt are separated into sections by color- a wash of the hue makes up the interior, and darker, concentrated colors run in a wavy, active line around the shape. These organic lines border each layer and produce a rough texture. Grass is hinted at on top of these earthen layers, represented by clumps of diagonal, curved lines. Foliage adds both depth and detail to the piece, building further upon the environment. As for the sea, the pale, mottled blues provide a calm, water/air-like quality that contrasts the boats' textures and patterns. Each ship utilizes sections of unified lines to depict carvings, paintings, and even moving oars. These textures create movement, a lively atmosphere- which adds to the mural's joyful, celebratory tone- and develop a more realistic, detailed setting in which touch, sight, and sound is imaginable. Lastly, the arrangement and activity of figures/objects in the mural suggest an energetic atmosphere and a tone of happiness, excitement, and celebration. First, all animals are either mid-stride or mid-air; dolphins jump out of water beside large ships, twisting and pointing in every direction or angle, while stags race across the top of a mountain away from a lion. Lions, birds, and dolphins decorate the ships' sides in several colors, positions, and patterns. Animals are also placed in close proximity to humans- suggesting a positive relationship with the creatures, and perhaps even feelings of respect or adoration. Second, several boats are painted out at sea, with no two alike. Some transport finely dressed individuals to the larger city in vessels adorned with ornaments and tassels, while others are comprised only of scantily clad rowers in a simple boat. Each ship faces right, heading towards the larger city; the villagers in the smaller city are also facing right (for the most part), watching them flow away. The finely dressed citizens, decorations, and vast number of individuals suggest that a festival may be being held. These observations also add to the lively, celebratory mood of the piece. In conclusion, the Flotilla Fresco is a positive painting about a place, its people, and nature. The mural utilizes color, texture, and overlapping shapes to convey emotion, activity, environments, and detail. In addition, the painting forever commemorates a love or pride for this land, its natural beauty, and its community. The Flotilla Fresco is full of energy, color, and life, hints at celebration and harmony between man and nature, and displays a kind of nationalism for a homeland. Originally written: 16 December 2015
Thomas Eakins’ painting, The Gross Clinic, was created in 1875 with oil on an 8’ by 6’5 canvas; the painting is of five surgeons operating in a full, shadowy classroom. Eakins utilizes a dark, thematic color palette and gruesome subject matter to initiate a discussion and to produce a lot of emotion in his painting. With his style, color choice, figure placement, and detailed expressions, Eakins makes a statement about surgical practitioners and the public’s view of them. First, the Gross Clinic is made up of dark shadows, muted colors, and one large ray of light. The background is eerie, with several men hidden in tiered seating and two lingering in the doorway; hints of white and flesh colored paint subtly highlight cheekbones, foreheads, and chins, alerting the viewer of their substantial presence. The individuals appear to be in an educational setting and are painted with varying hair styles, facial expressions, and postures. Some men watch rather inattentively, leaning into a palm or fist, whereas others take notes, or watch intensely; one man in the doorway even leans on a wall, as if slightly swooning. I believe that the bored looks of the students signify their built up resistance to morbid scenes; additionally, I think that Eakins painted them all in the shadows to symbolize how surgeon’s immunity to gore frightens the public and makes them appear uncaring or monstrous. Second, out of the many figures, only seven are displayed in the light and accentuated: a student, five surgeons, and a woman. Four of these surgeons are working on a human thigh, using towels, scalpels, and other tools. The body is exceedingly pale and its incised portion bleeds meagerly; I would think that this body was a fresh corpse, if the woman was not present. The woman is severely repulsed and upset by the scene, averting her gaze, covering her face with an arm, and cringing. Due to her extreme reaction, and the fact that she is a woman in a typically ‘male-only’ setting, I believe that she is related to the living body in some familial way. Additionally, the woman is wearing a blue head covering and a dark green gown instead of mourning clothes, which would have been improper if there had been a death in the family. hird, the most important figure in the painting is the older gentleman, because he is the largest, lightest figure, and also stands close to the painting’s center. As the focal point, he is portrayed as strong, solemn, and valiant, with one hand resting on the surgical table, and the other poised with a scalpel, bare fingertips moistened with blood. Although grim in appearance, he dons a tight, small smile, as if satisfied by his work and the reactions elicited. He is also very old and tired looking, which could indicate his wealth of knowledge and the burden of his occupation. With his contrary portrayal, I believe that Eakins thinks that the surgical profession is chilling and difficult to carry out, but also admirable and heroic. In conclusion, with the figures and color choices in mind, I believe that Eakins is commenting on several groups of people. The students in the dark represent the public’s fear of becoming used to gruesome scenes or becoming unfeeling. The woman was placed in the image to represent society’s emotions; she shirks away from the surgeons and the scene, much like I believe the public feared, distrusted, and avoided that type of medical practice. The standing surgeon/teacher is a representative of the surgical occupation and is the most important figure in the painting; he is formidable in his dark suit and gore splatter, but is also calm, serious, proud, and portrayed heroically, with light shining down on him with approval. His more frightening aspects derive from society’s views on surgery as a terrifying, uncertain, and maybe even evil, practice. However, Eakins’ portrayal makes the surgeon an ominous savior, and provokes discussion on the more positive aspects of surgery and surgeons. Originally written on: 14 July 2016 Religious paintings from the early Italian Renaissance were divided into two separate categories: images and stories. Following tradition, “an image was a representation of a person, [like] a saint, and was often used as a focus for devotion, while a story was a narrative [that displayed] an event, and its main purpose was [to be educational and moralizing]” (Hope). Images were typically comprised of one or more stoic, religious figures placed in a static posture and environment. These pieces of artwork were intended to represent eternal ideals and individuals, and were used as a tool for meditation and prayer. Stories, however, could be much more dramatic and dynamic, covering topics like the creation and fall of man, or the crucifixion of Jesus. Stories were often used to remind its viewers of biblical stories’ modern relevance— placing contemporary figures and settings within the artwork—and were also used for political reasons by the wealthy or influential. One popular narrative depicted during the Renaissance was the Adoration of the Magi (or the Eucharistic Adoration); the Adoration details the journey of three kings that follow a star to find and worship the Jewish messiah, bringing with them gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. This biblical narrative, based on Matthew 2:1-12, is often split into two parts, but has been divided into four: the meeting, the procession, the adoration, and the dream. Several artists from the Italian Renaissance have brought this image to life through marble, stone, fresco, and tempera, each obtaining a very different outcome. Gentile da Fabriano’s Adoration of the Magi (1423) and Sandro Botticelli’s Adoration of the Magi (1475- 1476) are interesting to compare, as they are a generation apart, use different narrative techniques to tell a story through paint, and both recount the same information while emphasizing distinct aspects. Gentile was well known for “lavish paintings in the courtly tradition” (Adams, 85), utilizing the deepest, most vibrant colors available and pairing them with ornately patterned surfaces/textures. He often painted dreamy individuals with rounded, soft faces and heavy-lidded eyes, and had an attention to detail when forming landscapes, clothing, and animals (the J. Paul Getty Museum). His altarpiece painting, Adoration of the Magi, was created near the end of his life, in 1423, at the request of Palla Strozzi. Strozzi was a very influential—and also the wealthiest—Florentine man who wanted to surpass the Medici family’s image of grandeur through the commission of an elaborate and extremely expensive piece of artwork (Adams, 85). For his work, Gentile was paid 300 florins (Hollingsworth, 41). Gentile painted in the International Gothic style, which featured exoticism, nature, crowded imagery, and luxurious materials (Adams, 86). Due to this, the story begins in the elaborate background, starting in the left and following the procession across the main panel, to the right. The painting is a continuous narrative (or pictorial déjà vu), chronicling the magi in five places and their procession in four locations, causing the image to become confusing. The repetitive characters display movement through time, from one event to the next, and are not meant to be literally shown as being in several places at once. Yet, the sense of depth and realistic imagery Gentile achieves conflicts with the pictorial déjà vu, but leads to heightened naturalism and episodic story-telling (Oxford University Press and the National Gallery of Art). This painting, like most Renaissance art, requires knowledge of religious texts, contemporary figures, and symbols to fully understand the narrative. To begin, atop a large rock on the left, the three kings stand staring up at the sky, where the prophesized star is located. The addition of soldiers killing a young, well-dressed man (perhaps Herod’s son), a castle with a walled city, and a sea filled with boats alludes to the kingdom of Herod. The viewer’s eye is then drawn to the right, following the curving line of figures to the middle arch. A large city is rendered on top of a hill, which would have been recognized as Jerusalem (Khan Academy). The transition to the third arch is not continuous or directed by movement, but is abrupt; this could be due to a space issue—for the panel is packed with figures and scenery—or could be intentional, although for an unknown reason. The interruption of visual movement halts the narrative, and instead of drawing the viewer towards the procession through Bethlehem, they are lead towards the main section of the altarpiece. The center exhibits the procession up close, providing a lot of detail and symbolism. This section shows the magi offering gifts to the baby Jesus and kneeling in worship, but the scene is not rendered in a traditional manner. First, not all figures are historic/religious and most characters are adorned in contemporary fashion. Their clothing’s textile patterns and their exotic animal companions highlight their foreign nature, conveying their journey from the East. The Renaissance-styled garments connect the story to the current era, commenting on the birth’s everlasting relevance. Nevertheless, this disconnect of past and present is essential, because it not only denotes pertinence, but displays the great distance the kings have traveled to show respect and allegiance—a message to viewers on the extent of their religious fervor and dedication. Additionally, their elaborate entourage and garments separate them from the holy figures. Mary, Joseph, and baby Jesus’ only ornate adornments are the golden halos above their heads, implying that their wealth is predominantly found within their spirit, though they are also worthy of earthly possessions. Strozzi largely used the commission as a display of great piety, but also wanted other messages included. Strozzi is depicted within the painting as one of the magi’s courtiers (behind the third magi and holding a falcon), “reminding viewers of [his] diplomatic credentials” (Khan Academy), as well as his devoutness and involvement with the church. The bird in his hand represents his family, because in Tuscan strozzieri translates into falconer. The Strozzi family crest is also represented on the bridle of the right-most, white horse, which is decorated by a golden, crescent moon (Khan Academy). Lastly, the hound found in the lower right corner associates Strozzi with loyalty and dependability. Botticelli’s version of the Adoration of the Magi is much different than Gentile’s in several ways, many of which are due to technical and stylistic advancements in Renaissance art. First, Botticelli worked with a new kind of paint—oil paint—that could be layered, did not dry as quickly, and had a greater transparency. Oil paint allowed him to work with brighter, more saturated colors and in a more three-dimensional manner than Gentile, who had to rely on gold leaf to accentuate his colors and brighten his image. Second, Botticelli’s painting is a monoscenic narrative, which is a style that relies on aerial and linear perspective, realism, and one unified scene with references to the past and future to tell a story (Oxford University Press and the National Gallery of Art). Monoscenic narrative ended the use of predella panels as spaces for allusions to different parts of one or more stories (as can be seen in Gentile’s piece). These additional scenes were replaced with symbolic images in the background or as smaller details within the main scene. “...By consolidating distinct episodes within a single, unified composition, [Botticelli] creates a sense of narrative flow that deepens [the viewer’s] perception of the central scene” (Oxford University Press and the National Gallery of Art), while also providing a less crowded and confusing composition. Botticelli uses his figures’ positions to denote movement instead of repetition; his characters face in different directions, with varying expressions and gestures demonstrated by arm, leg, and head placement, drawing the eye from figure to figure and left to right.
Unlike Gentile’s version, Botticelli emphasizes the religious connotations more and paints less elaborately, while also placing contemporary aspects within the ancient scene and commenting on relevancy. Botticelli places Mary, Joseph, and baby Jesus in the center of the composition, making them the focus of the piece. Gentile’s use of gold and his lightly colored magi in the panel’s center takes away from the viewer’s focus on the religious figures. Similarly, Botticelli separates the holy figures from the contemporary ones through their clothing, but also through placement. Mary and Joseph are clad in traditional, ancient clothing, whereas all other figures are dressed in fine cloth fixed in contemporary styles. More importantly, the holy family is raised above all other figures, emphasizing their status. However, the religious characters are depicted as normal, real humans without halos; they are shown as being “divine...yet accessible, holy and yet human” (Cummings). The Adoration of the Magi was commissioned by Guaspare di Zanobi Del Lama for his chapel on the inner façade Santa Maria Novella dedicated to the Magi, with help from the bankers’ guild. The commissioners were supporters of the Medici family, which heavily influenced its content. Del Lama requested that the Medici family be depicted within the painting, making it not only a religious piece, but a political one (Capretti). The Medici family is portrayed around the holy family, with Cosimo displayed as the eldest, most distinguished Magi, Lorenzo placed on his left, and other family members visible within the crowd. This choice conveys the Medici’s great political power and prestige. Humanist figures, such as Angelo Poliziano and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, are also recognizable in the group, as well as del Lama. Unlike Gentile, who provided neither a recognizable portrait or signature, Botticelli painted himself on the far right (dressed in yellow), recording the story of who created the image and what he may have looked like (Adams, 231). In conclusion, Gentile and Botticelli depicted the same Biblical story with political overtones, but emphasized different characteristics and used different techniques. Gentile focused on grandeur and detail, using gold leaf to create luminosity, symbols for story details, and repetition for movement. Botticelli, however, focused on realism and the importance of both the religious and political figures, utilizing character positioning for movement, the capabilities of oil paint for rendering, and symbolism for important story elements. Both artists carry on the ancient tradition of storytelling, each displaying an understandable narrative successfully, though in strikingly distinct ways. Works Cited Adams, Laurie Schneider. Italian Renaissance Art (Second Edition). Boulder: Westview Press, 2014. Print. Capretti, Elena. “‘Adoration of the Magi’, by Sandro Botticelli.” Mediateca di Palazzo Medici Riccardi. Provincia di Firenze, 20 March 2009. Web. Cummings, Erica. “Adoration of the Magi by Botticelli: Analysis & Overview.” Study.com. Web. Hollingsworth, Mary. Patronage in Renaissance Italy: From 1400 to the Early Sixteenth Century. Thistle Publishing, 2014. Print. Hope, Charles. “Religious Narrative in Renaissance Art.” Journal of the Royal Society of Arts 134.5364 (1986): 804-18. Web. Khan Academy. “Gentile da Fabriano, Adoration of the Magi.” Khan Academy. Web. Oxford University Press and the National Gallery of Art. “Continuous Narrative: Pictorial Déjà Vu.” Oxford University Press and the National Gallery of Art. Web. Oxford University Press and the National Gallery of Art. “Monoscenic Narratives: The Unification of Pictorial Space.” Oxford University Press and the National Gallery of Art. Web. The J. Paul Getty Museum. “Gentile da Fabriano.” The J. Paul Getty Museum. Web. Beginning in the 14th century, European civilization began to return to their cultural heritage, reviving the ideals and art style of classical antiquity (Greco-Roman civilization; 8th century B.C.E. – 5th century C.E.). The movement began in Italy, with the recovery of Roman and Greek art and literature; the ancient works inspired realistic, white marble sculptures, narratives full of dynamic movement and action, and the acceptable inclusion of pagan mythology in art. However, it has been argued that while Italy was the epicenter of the Renaissance, it really began with Frederick II (early-mid 13th century), who was a patron of the arts and sciences, promoted literature, and was said by some to rule with rationality and tolerance. The Renaissance (Italian for rebirth; coined in the mid-19 th century by historians) was greatly influenced by technological advances and not only affected art, but also politics, religion, philosophy, and science. The printing press, linear perspective, scientific method, gunpowder, musket, Ptolemaic system of astrology, and mariner’s compass were invented during this time period, expanding both the world and people’s understanding of it.
Several differences separate the Renaissance from the Middle Ages. During the Middle Ages, people focused on icons and teaching lessons through visual narration. Medieval art revolved around religion, as does most of Renaissance art, but sought to familiarize its viewers with Christian stories and values without utilizing words (i.e. “The Flight into Egypt”, St. Lazare Cathedral). The main characters in these narratives were also depicted in distinguishable ways, making the stories easy to follow and understand. Due to Medieval art’s overall simplicity, it has been believed that people of this era were less intelligent, but this is not true. These two sections of time had different priorities, which drastically affected their art styles. Literacy rates increased during the Renaissance because of the increased accessibility of books, encouraging more complex stories and symbolism (i.e. “The Birth of Venus”). The Renaissance focused instead on individualism, later referred to as humanism, and dramatic realism. Humanism (which also originated in Italy) fixated on aspects of human nature, syncretism, the dignity of man, and the human spirit. Additionally, Renaissance art featured realistic images and artists began creating based on the combination of observation and mathematics. People also developed a heightened interest in nature, dynamic postures were used in images, and Greco- Roman mythology was reintroduced for both dramatic and symbolic purposes. The High Renaissance began in the late 15 th century and is described by some historians as the perfection of Classical art. Leonardo de Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael worked during this time, creating masterpieces like “the Sistine Chapel”, “Pieta”, “David”, and “the Mona Lisa”. The Renaissance ended with the development of Mannerism, the deteriorating relationship between the church and government, and the fall of Rome in the mid-16 th century. |
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