Satisfying Crime—100% Justice, 100% of the Time
In large, bold letters strewn across the front page of the Dalles Chronicle on April 11 th , 1896, a shocking declaration is made: “Holmes Is Innocent, The Claim Advanced by a Detective, He Says Pitzel Is Still Alive, Other Reported Victims Alive, He Claims to Have Full Proof of His Assertions – Nannie Williams Was Killed by Her Sister” (“Holmes is Innocent”). Yet, this article, like hundreds of others, is only filled with unreliable, provocative, shocking information- a tactic still used by modern tabloids to incite curiosity and exploit the gullible or easily entertained. Crime journalism was not always so disreputable in 19 th century America, but by mid-century, fictitious additions were believed to be necessary for the industry’s survival. The thrilling world of novels left many uninterested in the drab, day to day occurrences of reality; to maintain and gain readership, abnormalities were exemplified, especially any shocking, violent crimes that would evoke strong emotions. The emphasis on tear-jerking, heated, or disturbing topics did boost sales, but it also created a demand for security, for criminals to be caught and punished. These frightening articles combined with the Industrial Revolution, Poe’s dark, yet wildly popular stories, and the advancement of law enforcement led to an obsession, a fear, and a need for the creation and refinement of the detective novel. Law enforcement—being a long, drawn out process—allowed newspapers to focus on a case for months, speculating or providing new bits of information every week. Articles about Mr. Holmes’ were in publication for thirteen years; the fixation began in 1983, when reports of women disappearing at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago generated genuine concern and several investigations. However, when their whereabouts uncovered a criminal beyond human imagination, the murders were treated as fiction and the criminal as a malicious, thoroughly evil monster. The public was thrown into hysteria, alarmed at the notion that killers could be hiding within their own communities; they became watchful of criminal activity, and— as early detective novels taught—learned to become suspicious of both outsiders and familiar faces. As crime journalism evolved, newspapers adopted a template that relied on chronology; this arrangement documented stories in either set increments of time, or sporadically as events took place. Papers typically began with a recounting of the crime and ended with a trial. Stories about the “Beast of Chicago,” his “Murder Hotel,” and victim count of between twenty-seven and two hundred was widely circulated, spreading from paper to paper, state to state. The horror began with the grotesque discovery of bodies, torture increments, and secret rooms in Holmes’ residence/hotel. Once these subjects had been exhausted, articles led into the police's chase of Holmes throughout the Midwest, noting his additional nefarious deeds and murders. Like a Doyle serialization from The Strand magazine, readers waited anxiously for the next installment, for the crime to be solved and justice delivered; but, unlike detective novels, it was not for entertainment or curiosity that the people read, but because of shock that an individual such as Holmes could exist. They were appalled that any human could commit such acts and get away— that it was reality and not an especially perverse, chaotic novel. Another addition to the cold, suspicious atmosphere of the 19 th century was the many falsehoods printed in newspapers. In Holmes’ case, entire ‘exclusive’ interviews were fabricated with news of Holmes' incarceration (Borowski). Some articles were more reserved in their lying, whereas others claimed that the murderer was possessed by a demon, or that he was transforming physically into Satan while sitting in his cell (Selzer); the most famous quote arising from the ordeal, however, was ingeniously penned by the Philadelphia North American: “I was born with the devil in me [says Holmes]. I was born with the evil standing as my sponsor beside the bed where I was ushered into the world, and he has been with me since” (“Holmes' Confession”). His trial and life ended in an anticlimactic execution. It turned out that Holmes was no larger than life villain, nor a character that acted out of passion or greed; he was average in appearance and quite human, but killed for enjoyment—an astounding explanation that was terrifying to Americans. Yet, these facts went hand in hand with the naturalistic movement in the late 19 th century, inspiring literature discussing every human’s ability to commit great atrocities or kindnesses in their search for pleasure, and obedience to instinct. However, Holmes was not the first criminal in 19 th century America to appear frequently in newspapers for notorious reasons, though he is a great example of the paper’s treatment of outlandish lawbreakers. “Real-crime” stories were common occurrences in the papers, presenting information in a way that made the reader feel like a detective on the case, reflecting the experience created by popular crime novels. For major cases, papers would begin by luridly listing the crimes committed (sometimes with images or sketches) and providing clues to the criminal’s location or guilt. After allowing the audience to speculate on how the crime was committed, or if the suspect was really involved in the situation at all, articles would document the chase, arrest, and courtroom activity, leading up to the trial’s verdict. The documentation was extensive, listing all present in the courtroom and on the jury, noting tones and expressions, evenhandedness and injustices; the events were read by members of all classes, the nature of the criminal present in all minds. Yet, the fact that these crime-centered newspapers existed and were read by vast amounts of Americans does not explain why they were popular. For one, literacy rates drastically increased because of the Industrial Revolution; mass production allowed for cheaper books to be made for the lower classes, in turn allowing them to purchase and learn from them. Newspapers were also perfected and mass produced at this time, being able to be transported easily and fairly quickly, spreading information across the continent. The creation of the illustrated newspaper also reached a larger audience—one who was not interested in reading before, or those who were only learning to read (Brownson, 31-32). The 19 th century’s technological advancements caused populations to explode and cities to expand; but, this progress and close grouping of numerous, diverse people brought about negative repercussions—an increase in crime and knowledge of it. Before the vast circulation of newspapers that highlighted happenings in major cities, the average citizen knew only of what happened within their community, major events spread by word of mouth, and fantasies conjured by books. As news from New York, Boston, etc. quickly traveled, real, violent stories of murder and theft were made known across the country, causing the world to feel small, bleak, and unsafe. However, the thrills, mystery, and satisfaction readers found in detective novels were not present in newspaper articles because of their somber reality. Newspapers fed their fears, caused people to turn to novels, to hope. Much like their new, industrialized lives, detective novels provided a predictable formula of crime, clues, and capture in an otherwise ever-changing world; the piecing together of the puzzle in detective novels was not always discernable to the reader, but the end result was always the same. Newspaper’s attempt to novelize real crime differed in three ways: the character, type of crime, and fallibility of agents. First, real criminals were often banal characters, like Mr. Holmes, with no outward appearance of mischief or villainy; Holmes, in fact, was considered to be attractive and pleasant to speak with, the opposite of a traditional villain. Additionally, real criminals did not always confess or display guilt over their actions, pleading innocent until their execution. The criminals of early detective novels act overly suspicious, have a physical signifier of maliciousness or sophistication, and civilly admit to their crimes in the end. Second, crimes in novels often deal with crimes of passion, or common offences like theft, and the perpetrators are always caught; some real life cases included lawbreakers that escaped the law, had questionable guilt, or committed unreasonable crimes. Early detective novels relied on the criminals being caught, with their actions reasonably explained to end the story. Third, law enforcement agents and private investigators were both imperfect crime solving groups, sometimes incarcerating the wrong individual or hitting dead ends. The police are often fallible in detective novels, but the investigators have superior cognitive abilities, always catching the criminal. The appeal of detective stories to 19 th century Americans was that they could provide what reality could not—safety and satisfaction. The detective novel was foreign enough in setting—due to its mixed, ambiguous history—to make its readers comfortable and able to temporary overlook the issues in their own country. These stories also had sophisticated, less brutal criminals who looked the part, enough mysteries and puzzles to maintain interest, ingenious detectives who could solve any crime, and cases that were explained beyond doubt. These traits—distance, engagement, subdued crime, heroic investigators, and the guarantee that justice will be accurately served—are why crime novels like Sherlock Holmes were initially popular in America. Real life crime, even solved cases, brought little gratification to families or audiences. At Holmes’ execution, although the criminal was brought to justice, several people remained dead. In life, the wrongs were never truly righted. Detective stories became a catharsis experience for Americans—especially those of the lower class (Brownson, 31-32). Crime was difficult to prevent, and justice just as hard to implement, so the crime novel provided its audience with hope that someone was taking care of things. This purge of fear and despair lasted well into the 20th century, becoming ingrained in a culture of well-documented and publicized evil. First, to understand why most 19th century, American crime novels were set in exotic locations, the history of detective novels must be discussed. The exclusivity of European settings was not a choice, but a necessity for American writers, because their home could not provide a suitable environment for detectives until the mid-1800s. Additionally, the invention of this genre cannot be credited to only culture, but three, as it was developed over time with the advancement of law enforcement agencies and the introduction of new literature. Presently, France, England, and the United States of America claim to be the creators of the crime genre and each has legitimate, though equal, claims (Brownson, 5). To start, there could not have been books about detectives without their historic existence. In 1749, Henry Fielding gathered together able-bodied men and established the Bow Street Runners; the members of this English organization are considered to be the first detectives. The Bow Street runners were not vigilantes, but were connected with the Magistrate's office, and unlike future police departments, they did not prevent crimes, but solved them. However, the Sûreté Nationale is considered the first detective agency whose members and their actions were imitated by novels' characters (Brownson, 16). Vidocq, head of the group, hired ex-cons, introduced ballistics, record-keeping, permanent ink, unalterable bond papers, criminology, and plaster casts of shoe impressions. These 19 th century detectives “act[ed] as [law enforcement agents] in matters that their clients felt the police were not equipped for or willing do”, specializing in labor and employment issues (“History of Private Investigators”). While private investigators were mostly confined to working for the wealthy, contemporary police organizations were installed several years later, in 1829, England; these “Bobbies” had a large impact on how crime was handled and treated in novels. Peele's New Police was an official organization like Bow Street, but was concerned with keeping the peace and preventing crimes from occurring. However, policemen had no authority or any abilities to carry out these tasks, and were consequently portrayed negatively in literature and as foils for detectives (Brownson, 16). Although America did not have an established detective agency until 1850 (Pinkerton National Detective Agency), the combination of European agencies began to develop an identity for the investigators. The first detective story written with intent and focus on essential elements of the crime genre is almost unarguably attributed to the American culture (“History of Private Investigators”). Stories about crime appeared much before the 1800s, focusing on the criminal and his/her crime, but they lacked an essential element- a crime solver. Daniel Defoe's Street Robberies, Consider'd (1728) is a transitional example of these detective-less crime novels, for it relies on rationalization more than emotion to solve problems (Brownson, 17). For this reason, Defoe is the foremost contender against Edgar Allan Poe's The Murders in the Rue Morgue (1841) for the first detective story, but Poe’s short story follows more closely to the traditional definition—having a type of detective—and forms a sort of template for later novels in the genre (Brownson 15-16 & Lilly Library, 7-10). With his homeland lacking reference material, Poe relied on his knowledge of Paris' agency and Vidocq's Memoirs (1827) to build characters, settings, and a plot. In the Murders in the Rue Morgue, the narrator and his friend C. Auguste Dupin attempt to clear Adolphe Le Bon's name- who was falsely accused, and earned a favor from Dupin. In the short story, Dupin investigates the murders Le Bon is charged with, gathers evidence, and employs harsh rationality, imagination, and wits. He is not part of an early police force, or called a detective or investigator, but the term detective was not coined until the 1840s, after Poe's publication; Dupin, however, may be a play on the word dupe– to deceive –which was what several early investigators claimed to do to criminals or other people for information (Gaines). Poe’s sequel to The Murders in the Rue Morgue is credited as the first story based on a real crime. The Mystery of Marie Rogêt was a serialized story based on the disappearance and death of Mary Rogers, being published first in Snowden’s Ladies’ Companion. Most of the story remains true to the actual events, with the real names of those involved and quotes from actual newspapers used. One difference Poe made was setting; he changed the location of the crime to Paris instead of New York, distancing itself from the actual atrocity. The plot of Marie Rogêt revolves around the idea of solving a crime from the couch by reading articles and utilizing ‘ratiocination’—or reasoning. Although the story was based on a dramatic, well-known occurrence, it was the least successful of Poe’s stories. As Howard Haycraft in Murder for Pleasure comments: “This longest of Poe's three major excursions into detective literature is, unhappily, the least deserving of detailed attention. It might be better called an essay than a story. As an essay, it is an able if tedious exercise in reasoning. As a story, it scarcely exists. It has no life-blood. The characters neither move nor speak. They are present only through second-hand newspaper accounts.... Only a professional student of analytics or an inveterate devotee of criminology can read it with any degree of unfeigned interest" (pg. 3). Poe’s sequel’s failure could have been due to the drier take on the detective novel, or simply because it was too close to reality, making the audience uncomfortable (Thomas). Nevertheless, Poe’s three short stories—each much different in approaching crime solving—influenced the most well-known detective novelist, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. After Poe, the first full-length detective novel was published—Emile Gaboriau's L'Affair Lerouge (1866)—and the first English detective novel—Wilkie Collin’s The Moonstone (1868). Finally, in 1878, the Leavenworth Case: A Lawyers Study by Anna Catherine Green was published as the first novel written by an American woman and set in an American setting (Lilly Library, 8-10). This immensely successful novel focused on the murder of a wealthy, retired merchant, who was killed in his New York mansion by a bullet to the head. Green’s detective was male—as most were—but utilized not only reason, but intuition; this was a new, American addition to the genre, which had before followed Poe’s lead of relying on thought. The case’s solution depended not only on investigation, but on conversation and confession. However, the story is not told in third person, or through the eyes of Gryce (the detective), but through “his legs,” Raymond. Gryce and his actions are not the focal point of the novel, as in Sherlock, and most of the investigative work is done out of scene. Gryce does appear during the novel’s critical moments, explaining to Raymond the significance of events (Brownson, 29). The emotional and psychological emphasis is a remnant of romanticism, which still had a large influence in literature until the late-1800s, when realism and Sir Conan Doyle took over. In the late 1880s, influenced greatly by Poe’s short stories, Doyle began to work on the iconic Sherlock Holmes novels. Doyle’s novels are shockingly similar to the setup of Poe's short story and characters. Americans did not seem to mind the similarities, as Doyle’s stories had more immediate success than Poe’s. As discussed, the traits and crime-solving process of Dupin are the same as Doyle’s main character Sherlock. Additionally, the narrator of Poe’s story acts as a less intelligent side-kick and foil to the detective (like Watson), Dupin appears in more than one story, and the overall effectiveness of the police force is questioned; like many investigators after him, Dupin criticizes the police’s thoughtfulness, creativity, and observational abilities, saying, as Poe had, “we should not ask ‘What has happened?’ but ‘what has happened that has never happened before’?” (Poe, 12). With the French, English, and American countries producing several novels of this kind around the same time period, it is hard to definitively say which country had more involvement with the detective novel’s birth. Each culture offered much to the stylistic approach to writing these mystery-dramas, and each offered their varied histories of crime, law, and punishment to the mix. Nevertheless, the immense success from authors such as Thomas Aldrich, Lawrence Lynch, Melville Post, and Julian Hawthorne established the detective genre in America and created a formula, a standard for others to follow. Doyle’s series and an increased awareness of crime caused detective novels to increase in demand. To meet the market’s desire, more authors joined in the genre, relying heavily on material from previous successes. With more novels being released, trends became apparent, expectations developed, and the detective novel became defined. As Brownson summarizes, detective novels require a crime, a criminal, a detective, threatened or innocent bystanders, and a chronicler—who gains the reader’s trust and does not lie, but may not be reliable, being fallible (unlike the detective) and prone to believe other’s lies (pgs. 12,15). Many novels not considered detective stories included aspects of the genre—like Tom Sawyer, McTeague, the Pioneers, and the Scarlet Letter. These many references to criminals and investigation displayed what was on the minds of 19th century Americans—crime. The introduction of industrialization, the fast growth of cities, and availability of information caused the world to grow small, dark, and unfamiliar. Unimaginable crimes were discussed daily though newspapers, with little hope of justice being served. Even when criminals were punished, it did not rectify the wrongs or bring about satisfaction to the people. Detective novels were a form of escape; they allowed their fearful readers a brief existence in a world where crimes were always solved by a dependable, almost supernatural, leader and the criminals were obvious delinquents —either eccentric or physically ominous. The crimes in these novels did not matter because the victims did not exist, and the consequences of these violences were completely absent. The crime novel evolved and developed over time as need occurred, and allowed Americans to cope with something they had never experienced before.
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