Essay originally written on: 14 July 2016 High Renaissance artists expanded upon the foundation of Early Renaissance art, creating more realistic figures and backgrounds than their predecessors, while also addressing spiritual matters, adhering to classical ideals, and alluding to their pagan heritage. While most Early Renaissance art was focused on Christian images of biblical stories, saints, and evocations to meditation and worship, High Renaissance art focused more on appreciating beauty, recounting mythological stories, and displaying dynamic movement. Sixteenth-century artists began to show more emotion in their characters, more complicated movement in their figure’s postures, and added an element of eroticism that had been missing in the Medieval era. As artists, patrons, and scholars gained interest in Greek and Roman antiquity, texts and artwork from the ancients were increasingly sought after and circulated. Subjects and iconography from the Greco-Roman era gained popularity in the High Renaissance, merging the Christian God, biblical values, pagan gods, and ancient principles into one complex image. Decorating private and public rooms with classical-themed work was not considered sacrilegious, but a symbol of education; poems and narratives depicting ancient mythology and history became part of a scholarly curriculum (OUP & NGA, “At Home with the Antique Gods”). Writings from Plato, Horace, Seneca, Ovid, Plotinus, and Hermes Trismegistus were heavily studied by the upper class, causing them to be influential on Renaissance society (Adams, 232-233). These texts changed the 16th century’s views on religion, philosophy, and contemporary academics, concluding that one, true theology existed and was threaded throughout all religions (Yates, 14-18 & 433-434 and Hanegraaff, 360). Some truth was thought to have existed in the Greco-Roman religion, so pagan characteristics displayed in art were acceptable in society, being viewed as behavioral models or as expressions of a family or group’s special virtues. Mythological allusions were also often paired with existing Christian symbolism (or they were given new associations), justifying their presence and creating allegories (OUP & NGA, “At Home with the Antique Gods”). Some mythological figures were more readily used by artists, such as Hercules, Minerva, Venus, Jupiter, Mercury, Neptune, and especially Bacchus, to convey a message. Bacchus, typically displayed as a lithe, young man, could also take the form of a baby. Whereas the more mature Bacchus symbolized earthly delights and the Eucharist, his infant counterpart referenced the Nativity and suggested “that wine may bring the kind of inspired revelation that leads to an understanding of the Christian mysteries” (OUP & NGA, “At Home with the Antique Gods” and Earls, 32). The god of wine’s image was reproduced on childbirth trays, in marble statues, and in several paintings. Giovanni Bellini’s the Feast of the Gods (1514) and Titian’s Meeting of Bacchus and Ariadne (1522-1523) are two instances of his portrayal in Renaissance art. Both paintings were commissioned by the same patron, derived from Ovid, intended for private audiences, and were “history paintings”. This genre of artwork (also called poesia) consisted of mythological narratives based off of classical texts and differed greatly from the public, religious narratives displayed in churches (Encyclopedia of Art Education). Bellini’s oil painting was a mythological scene commissioned by Duke Alfonso d’Este for his personal study, the Alabaster Chamber. Even though pagan “iconology was well established in much of Italy, it was still rare in Venice” (Adams, 289) and an uncommon subject for Bellini. The scene is derived from Ovid’s classical poem, the Feasts, which recounts the origin stories for several Roman festivals and rites. Bellini seems to have focused on a particular section about a banquet given by Bacchus, where Priapus (god of virility & vineyards; identifiable by the scythe and vineyards above him) was embarrassed in front of Bacchus’ crowd. The nymph Lotis (sleeping at the far right) was eased to sleep by wine, but Priapus lusted for her and planned to take advantage of the situation. However, he was thwarted by a donkey (to the left), who "with raucous braying, gave out an ill-timed roar. Awakened, the startled nymph pushed Priapus away, and the god was laughed at by all." This portion explains why Priapus demands the annual sacrifice of a donkey (National Gallery of Art). Much like religious paintings of the time—which required fairly extensive knowledge on saints, religious legends, and texts—mythological paintings required familiarity with ancient texts, icons, and traditions to fully understand them. Figures can be distinguished by their appearance and items they wear or carry. To the far left stands Silenus, a follower of Bacchus. The woodland deity is recognizable by his donkey (who carries firewood for him), by the barrel of wine strapped to his belt, and his nearness to Bacchus. Bacchus, the child decanting wine, is identifiable by the wreath of vine leaves on his head (National Gallery of Art). Ancient imagery used Bacchus’ age to denote the seasons, with his infancy denoting winter, “like the earth before the growth brought by spring and summer” (OUP & NGA, “At Home with the Antique Gods”); this representation may be the reason for Bacchus’ youthful appearance, for it is an allusion to the patron’s winter marriage. Next to Bacchus sits the old forest god Silvanus wearing his wreath of pine needles and Mercury, the messenger of the gods, carrying his caduceus. Jupiter, king of the gods, is farther right and recognizable by his accompanying eagle. Persephone sits below him, holding a quince (which alludes to marriage), and the satyr Pan sits behind her, playing on his lute. Neptune, the god of the sea, touches Persephone suggestively and is identifiable by his nearby trident. Ceres, the grain goddess to his right, is denoted by her wheat wreath. Apollo, god of the sun and arts, holds a lira de braccio (Renaissance instrument) under Priapus. The group of deities are waited upon by three naiads (nymphs of streams/brooks) and two satyrs (National Gallery of Art). The Feast of the God’s was commissioned to entertain guests, display intellect, and symbolize Alfonso’s power as a patron, so it is no surprise that it may contain other, more cryptic references. For example, the quince, kingfisher, Bacchus’ youth, scene of celebration, and story about Priapus could allude to Alfonso’s marriage to Lucrezia Borgia. The kingfisher symbolizes the halcyon days, or the period of calm weather that occurs near the winter solstice. The ancient festival dedicated to Priapus occurred each winter, where a donkey was slaughtered as a sacrifice. These images by themselves build a narrative and its setting, but as a collection they are significant because Alfonso and Lucrezia’s marriage took place in December (OUP & NGA, “A Patron at Work”). As for Christian symbolism, the satyrs and Priapus are warnings against lust, reminding the couple to remain faithful throughout their marriage. As the Feast of the Gods was Bellini’s last painting, other artists were asked to make edits by the Duke. The painting was not left unfinished by the artist, but Alfonso began to become dissatisfied with it as his study changed, wanting it to match his other pieces of art. Dosso Dossi, the court artist of Ferrara, is thought to have been the first to make alterations to the painting, due to X-ray and infrared studies (National Gallery of Art). Dossi was considered an amateur painter, but was likely asked to make changes to match the other decorations and bacchanals in the study. The painting’s original composition was made up of a continuous screen of trees in the background; this was replaced by a hill topped with classical buildings (to relate to Alfonso’s fondness for antiquity). Dosso also added bright green foliage to the right of the foreground and a pheasant sitting on an upper branch. Although the detail is thought to be a bit eccentric, its remaining presence could be a reference to Dosso’s work on the image or to Alfonso’s preference for pheasant meat (OUP & NGA, “A Patron at Work”). Titian, who had worked under Bellini, is the second artist believed to have altered Bellini’s painting. He repainted most of the background, changing the sky to an ultramarine color and adding a mountain with sharp cliffs. Additionally, he painted over many of Dosso’s alterations. Titian’s freer painting style of broad strokes and thicker paint application differed greatly from Bellini’s delicate, more meticulous painting, causing the background to contrast notably with the foreground (National Gallery of Art). Titian’s Meeting of Bacchus and Ariadne was also commissioned by Alfonso d’Este to compliment Bellini’s piece in his study. Based on another section of Ovid’s poem, the scene depicts Bacchus falling in love with Ariadne at first glance. According to the texts, Ariadne had saved Theseus from the Minotaur’s labyrinth on Crete, but was soon abandoned by her lover on the island Naxos (Adams, 368). His ship can be seen sailing away on the far left of the image. Her mourning is interrupted by Bacchus’ arrival, who leaps from his chariot, declares his love, promises to be a more faithful lover than Theseus, and offers her a constellation of stars (Encyclopedia of Art Education). As the brightest figures in the composition, Ariadne and Bacchus are the focal points. Their swirling, rich garments and dynamic gesture adds to the narrative’s drama, filling the image with movement and color. The Northern Crown (identifying the underlying figure as Ariadne) can be seen in the deep blue sky to the left. Bacchus is portrayed in a chariot pulled by a pair of cheetahs (a typical display in ancient sculpture), donning a wreath of grapevine leaves, and clearly in an inebriated state by his flailing limbs, somewhat glazed expression, and inelegant posture (Allegretto, 21-23). Their future erotic encounter is alluded to by the pair of cheetahs and the collection of red pigments. The viewer’s eyes are led towards his entourage by his pointing arms, where his passionate, writhing group of satyrs, cymbal and tambourine players follows. An obese version of Silenus can be seen towards the back of the crowd, asleep on his donkey. Individuals within the crowd pull a steer’s head with a rope and wave a haunch, referring to a similar scene within Ovid’s poem Metamorphosis. A large, bearded figure wrapped in serpents not only alludes to the poem’s description, but also the Hellenistic statue Laoconӧ , which had been recently excavated and could have been seen by Titian in Rome (Adams, 368).
Titian paints in high contrast, with bright colors intermingled in darks, but also separates the painting into two sections: the left is tamer and elegant, while the right is crowded and animalistic. This separation symbolizes a moral and immoral life. The left side contains the pair —who will eventually fall in love—cheetahs, and a small dog—a symbol of loyalty— collectively referring to marital fidelity. The right side is darker in color, more erotic, and disorganized, warning of the immorality associated with drunkenness, as well as the loss of humanity. The Feast of the Gods and the Meeting of Bacchus and Ariadne are very similar in appearance and content because Titian worked on both images (Bellini was also his master), they were based on poems by the same author, and were commissioned by the same patron for the same room. Many patrons ordered images from artists like Bellini and Titian to influence their image and Alfonso’s reasons were no different. They were intended to entertain and impress guests with their many allusions and detailed nature, perhaps to act as a conversation piece similar to mannerist paintings of the future. It is fairly well-known that both Alfonso and Lucrezia were unfaithful to each other, so the pieces of art could have also been used to combat rumors of infidelity, and state that they were in love like Bacchus and Ariadne and loyal, as morality demanded. However, these elaborate and complicated compositions displayed a narrative that only a specific audience could understand, one that relied heavily on scholarly/classical knowledge, emphasized drama, and displayed classical stories in a new, pagan/Christian manner. Works Cited Adams, Laurie Schneider. Italian Renaissance Art (Second Edition). Boulder: Westview Press, 2014. Print. Allegretto, Kari A. “The Ancient Cupid and Bacchus in Renaissance Art.” Lycoming College, 2011. Web. Earls, Irene. Renaissance Art: A Topical Dictionary. ABC-CLIO, 1987. Print. Encyclopedia of Art Education. “Bacchus and Ariadne (1520-23).” Encyclopedia of Art Education. Web. Hanegraaff, Wouter J. New Age Religion and Western Culture. SUNY: 1998. Print. National Gallery of the Arts. “The Feast of the Gods.” National Gallery of Art. Web. Oxford University Press and the National Gallery of Art (OUP & NGA). “At Home with the Antique Gods.” Oxford University Press and the National Gallery of Art. Web. Oxford University Press and the National Gallery of Art (OUP & NGA). “A Patron at Work: The Feast of the Gods.” Oxford University Press and the National Gallery of Art. Web. Yates, Frances A. Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition. University of Chicago Press, 1964. Print.
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Essays in Art History: Norwegian Art of the 19th century- Nationalism, Emotion, & Romanticism5/18/2017 Essay Originally written on: 3 February 2017 Political upheaval, economic growth and decline, war, an uncertain identity, and depopulation shaped the Norwegian people of 19th century Scandinavia (“A Short History of Norway”). A growing sense of nationalism and increased prosperity occurred in the first half of the 1800's, cultivating native art depicting Scandinavian landscapes, stories, and emotions. However, numerous hardships developed in the mid-1800's that greatly changed Norwegian art and artists. Artists began to decline in number and the population was comprised of poorer families. The quality of Norwegian art students' education and training decreased, causing Norwegians to fall behind southern European students and have less successful careers—with some exceptions, such as Johan Christian Dahl (“Dark Night of the Soul”). Nevertheless, Norwegian artwork from the beginning to the end of the 19th century displayed the changing emotions of its people, captured a beauty in isolation, the wilderness, and in cold environments that had not been seen before (Bray). Norwegian art contributed to the Western world's fascination with the North, helped develop northern tourism, and provided insight into a culture and environment many never realized existed. Nineteenth-century Norwegian art is tied to its culture, environment, and history. First, Norway is one country that is part of a much larger, Northern European grouping called Scandinavia. Scandinavia can be divided and defined based on three different characteristics: linguistics, geography, and history. Linguistically, Scandinavia is the portion of Northern Europe that contains Denmark, Norway, and Sweden; these three countries speak Northern Germanic languages—Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish. Geographically, Scandinavia is comprised of Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, and Iceland, because they make up the Scandinavian Peninsula. Historically, Scandinavia refers to the Nordic countries: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and the Åland Islands; these countries share a similar environment, culture, language, and history (i.e. Germanic tribes and Vikings).These distinct identities are displayed throughout Norwegian art “...reflect[ing] their stormy history... and shar[ing] many characteristics of [their] landscape—hardness, sharpness, clarity—...[as well as] distinctive moral and psychological characteristics. [Their art displays] pride tempered by a sense of living at the margins, anxiety, loneliness, melancholy, and... a determination to endure” (“Dark Night of the Soul”). Yet, Norwegians were treated as outsiders among other Scandinavian peoples—who ironically were thought just as peculiar by the rest of the world. Like many northern cultures, Norwegians were ruled by others for hundreds of years, and were forced to conform to others' cultural norms and traditions. From 1521 until 1814, Norway was a Danish province controlled by an absentee government in Copenhagen; the Norwegian people were treated poorly and as inferiors, causing Norwegian traditions to endure only in self-sufficient, rural villages far from cities and Danish influence. After three-hundred years of oppression, most Norwegian identifying citizens had forgotten or abandoned traditional practices and garments. After the military campaigns of the Napoleonic War had ceased, Norway was invaded by the Swedes. After several battles won by Norway, Sweden signed a compromise that left Norway as a partially independent subject of Sweden. This was the first time since the Renaissance that Norway felt any sense of freedom. With increased political power, Norwegians began to re-establish, encourage, and perpetuate a national identity; much cultural heritage had been lost or relinquished with contact, weakening the idea of a uniquely Norwegian people and culture. A need for nationalism paired with a short period of economic/cultural growth, allowed Norwegian artists and art to be developed and asserted by the government and communities—leading to a phase of romantic, scenic art, known as the Golden Age of Northland Art (The Metropolitan Museum of Art). Norway's romantic era focused on images that combined naturalism with romanticism. Theses pieces of art expressed morals or ideas through traditional values, customs, symbols, and artistic elements like contrast or color. During this time, most Scandinavian artists were trained at the Royal Academy in Copenhagen, Denmark; here, an emphasis was placed on landscape paintings and capturing the quality of light found in northern regions (The Metropolitan Museum of Art). However, before northern imagery gained popularity in the 19th century, art depicting blue fjords, “...lighthouses on lonely shores, sailboats dwarfed by [mighty] seas”, and “...towers of fractured rock with [little evidence of] human activity” were underrepresented and in low demand. Beauty was not found in these kinds of landscapes by non-northern viewers prior to the Golden Age of Northland Art; these wild, dangerous environments were feared, whereas scenes of warm, rolling hills, wooded groves, and cities were considered cozy and attractive (Bray). The explosion of Scandinavian art expressing a northern culture and exhibiting arctic nature in a nostalgic, sentimental manner transformed the north into a place of allure, excitement, and strength. Work of this nature (specifically made between the early 1800's until the 1850's) comprised Norway's Romantic Nationalism movement (Norwegian Encyclopedia). Johan Christian Dahl is one of the most well-known Norwegian painters that helped popularize northern art and tourism. Dahl’s work expressed a longing for his homeland, a love for nature and its inhabitants' strength and harshness, as well as a great pride in Norwegian history, culture, and natural landscapes (“Dark Night of the Soul”). Unlike other artists from Norway, Dahl was able to travel and learn outside of Scandinavia. Studying abroad would have helped Dahl pinpoint exactly what characteristics separated Norway from the rest of the world, as well as add different painting techniques and theories to his skillset. Like artists trained at Copenhagen, Dahl's paintings utilized the unique interactions between northern light, weather, and environments to create an interesting, dynamic composition. However, he also used these elements to convey emotions, morals, or statements, instead of only rendering an idealized/realistic scene, such as in Avaldsnes Church (1820) or Birch Tree in a Storm (1849). Avaldsnes Church is both a historical-romantic painting. The piece focuses on a medieval parish church—St. Olav's Church—that served as a religious monument for pilgrims, a place of theological study, a royal seat of power, and was built to be a symbol of unification, prosperity, and authority (“St. Olav's Church” and “Avalsnes kirke”). With this background knowledge, it is understandable why Dahl would choose it as a subject; the appearance of the church at the break of dawn would bring about nostalgia, desire for a time long gone—a period of wealth, independence, and strength—as well as hope for the future. The rocky shore and rough walls of the church are shrouded in darkness, except for patches where the rising sun sheds light upon them and the calm waters. The darkness and harshness of the land represents the hard times Norwegians had endured while under Danish control. However, the dawn symbolizes change: the light hitting the church signifies a return to tradition, prosperity, and self-governance, the still waters represent peace, and, overall, the image conveys that better days are on the horizon. As if foretold by the romantic paintings of the early 1800’s, Norway entered a period of growth, though for only a short time. By mid-century, Norway faced immense problems. First, changes in the judiciary system, new laws, and shifts in power made the country unstable. Second, the establishment of Norwegian banks and currency, war debts, and other financial situations ruined Norway’s economy. Lastly, industrialization damaged rural ways of life, drastically altered the relationship between workers and employers, and led to a large amount of emigration to the United States (“A Short History of Norway” and “Eastern Europe and Scandinavia”). This did not halt the creation or spread of romantic-nationalistic artwork, though; the turn of events caused a more desperate need for optimism and a positive identity. Beautifully captivating scenes of Scandinavian landscapes (images like Lighthouse on the Norwegian Coast or Nordkapp by Peder Balke) sparked an interest in southerners. Art depicting the northern world soon became part of popular culture—generating further exploration of the North, contact with other cultures, and a tourism industry. The trend even influenced non-northern artists to create representations of the land and its people (and some of these outsiders were more successful in this genre than their native counterparts). However, this did not solve the average Norwegian’s problems; they remained poor, often without work or fair wages. With this, darker themes developed in Norwegian art, and can be viewed in Dahl’s later work. In his painting, Birch Tree in a Storm , a pride in Norwegian environments and its people braving the land’s unfavorable conditions is displayed–but so is a grim, inevitable future. First, the subject and focus–the birch tree—is highlighted by color contrast and clear rendering. The bright colors of the birch are emphasized, causing the plant to look as if it was “bravely assert[ing] its existence against the hostile, cold background—an environment where other trees have almost been obliterated by the mournful, all-pervading blue and violet” (Mras, 17). The muddled and unclear background further asserts the important form of the tree. Dahl's composition is dramatic, not only because of the weather, but because of the tree's diagonal reach, the splash of bright, nearby sky, and the subject matter. The birch's gnarled, broken, worn bark and limbs may reflect Norwegians' lives burdened with poverty and uncertainty; as the birch tree, they are surrounded by darkness, in the middle of a storm, holding out as long as physically possible, all the while knowing that the winds will eventually blow them over the cliff’s edge. These pessimistic, ominous undertones appear frequently in mid to late-century Norwegian art. Like a lot of northern art, Scandinavian imagery contains dark themes that are present in both tone and atmosphere. As discussed in class lectures, the presence of grimmer characteristics may be due to the North’s colder climate, seasonal period of reduced daylight, or starker, more severe surroundings and living conditions. These physical circumstances paired with depressing mental elements and romanticism create a concept referred to as ‘nordic angst’. In short, nordic angst is a hopeless, but brave attitude commonly associated with Norwegian imagery. With this strange juxtaposition of emotions, perceptions are often exhibited in a conflicting manner; for example, nature is presented as a powerful, dominant force that is dangerous and mysterious, but also beautiful, desirable, and homey. In Birch Tree in a Storm, the tree is rooted perilously on the edge of a cliff, yet there is an allure to the area, and a pride in attempting to exist there. The image conveys an odd combination of fear and stubbornness, strength and weakness. Romantic imagery declined in the late 1800’s and uneasiness took center stage as more and more Norwegians left their homeland or became poorer (“Dark Night of the Soul”). No artist exhibited the psychological stress or transformation 19th century Norwegians experienced like Norway’s most famous artist, Edvard Munch. Munch's imagery contained several ecological themes commonly found in Norwegian art (like rocky shores or moonlit nights), but he also spent much time outside of Norway, giving him (like Dahl) a different perspective than other natives. Unlike his Norwegian peers—who could not afford a refined art education—he was heavily influenced by southern artistic techniques and trends (i.e. impressionism instead of naturalism, an expression of the internal rather than the external). Though living abroad, and somewhat distant from Norwegian culture, Munch shared themes with other local, native artists; many of the subjects of his paintings can be traced back to Norwegian culture or life: he displays an appreciation for the land, as well as a dark, mysterious, and almost fearful sense of nostalgia (“Edvard Munch: Norwegian Painter and Printmaker”). Munch’s painting the Scream is the greatest example of nordic angst, but his lesser known piece Mermaid is a better comparison for Norwegian art’s shift away from romanticism, while keeping its ties to traditionalism and nationalism. Mermaid, an oil painting by Edvard Munch, relates more to Norwegian folk art, nationalism, and Norse mythology than most, if not all, of his other work. Mermaid was commissioned by a wealthy patron from Norway, who wanted the painting for his home and a very particular architectural placement (a high, triangular, wall piece). The painting was completed in Paris and was Munch's first decorative painting—which was a type of art used by both Parisian avant-garde and Norwegian folk-revivalists (Philadelphia Museum of Art). Mermaid's commissioner, Axel Heiberg, was a Norwegian nationalist who specifically wanted an image to convey his feelings of patriotism and to celebrate Norwegian art, history, and culture (Zarobell, 14-16). The painting displays the sole figure of a mermaid—from Norse mythology—in the middle of transforming into a human. Myths such as this one were a large part of Norwegian culture, expressing traditional values, tales, and a pride in identity/history (“Dark Night of the Soul”). Unlike earlier depictions of idealized reality, this mythological painting had fantastical elements, looser brushstrokes, and abstracted forms--all of which were for an intended, obscure purpose. For example, the mermaid's mid-way transformation may have been incorporated to express Norway's condition and place in the world; will this creature from ancient lore fully transform from fish to human, conforming to a new, modern world? How does something old fit in with what is new? Or will the mermaid be left gasping for air on the shore, forced back into the water’s icy depths, never evolving, continuing to circle in its old habits?
With only a pine tree, rocks, and the moon accompanying her, a very lonely and isolated tone is created and paired against beautiful, yet sinister colors, surroundings, and forms (Philadelphia Museum of Art). Beauty in isolation and nature is a common theme in Norwegian art (many naturalistic paintings conveyed loneliness; i.e. Balke’s Seascape or Vardøhus Fortress) ; Norway housed a small, declining population that led to feelings of alienation and solitude, placing a greater emphasis on the natural environment, rather than people and their constructions (Bray). Munch's painting also emphasized the figure by using contrast: the mermaid's pale skin and the light of the moon are dramatically highlighted against the dark purples and blues of the sky and sea. Scenes of the coast and of moonlit nights were popular among romantic, Norwegian artists, making Mermaid a great piece to use as a comparison between early and late Norwegian art. Unlike romantic art, Munch's painting does not express specific marks of pride, but creates a haunting, grim atmosphere by the subject matter, colors, and figure's expression—which may have been used to reflect a somber, disenchanted Norway. Like romantic imagery, Mermaid shows a knowledge of Norwegian history and landscapes, but adds to it. In this piece, Munch is unconcerned with addressing ideals. Instead, he depicts a fantastical, symbolic reality, which focuses on expressing a culture’s emotion and inner turmoil. Whether or not this image was what Heiberg wanted, the figure’s uncertain, but strong gaze captured a time and a people’s mental state—one that would carry over into World War II. Norwegian 19th century art is a rollercoaster of emotion, only grounded and connected by similar fears, subjects, and references. The Golden Age of Northland Art began in Norway with a taste of independence, which generated a need, a desire for a national identity and pride. However, the high associated with their victory was short lived; Norway fell into a deep economic depression and became unsure of its role in the world, as well as confidence in its governing ability. The beautiful, sentimental, and hopeful images created by artists like Dahl and Balke generated tourism to the North, in addition to appreciation for the land. Yet, this new industry did little to improve native or new artists’ lives, bringing instead outsiders to paint and bring the North south. The fears and pessimism that spawned in the mid-late century permeated even the most outwardly hopeful, nationalistic pieces of art. Nordic angst became tangible, visible in conflicting forms, colors, and concepts. The downtrodden mood of Norway could no longer be hidden, and was best expressed by Edvard Munch, as well as popularized. Over the century, Norwegian art did establish a unique, nationalistic identity that moved into the 20th century, where it was further transformed: an identity that was built on perseverance, stubbornness, melancholic pride, and anxiety. Works Cited “A Short History of Norway.” Royal Norwegian Embassy in London, http://www.norway.org.uk/studywork/Norway-For-Young-People/History/Historical-Figures/#.WJVjrFMrJqM. Accessed 4 Feb. 2017. “Avalsnes kirke.” Kirkesøk, http://www.kirkesok.no/eng/kirker/Avaldsnes-kirke. Accessed 30 April. 2017. Bray, Paul. “The history of Norwegian art and where to go to see it.” The Telegraph, 9 Jan. 2017, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/norway/extraordinary-sights/history-of-art/. Accessed 4 Feb. 2017. “Dark Night of the Soul.” The Art of Scandinavia, written and presented by Andrew Graham-Dixon, BBC, 2016. “Eastern Europe and Scandinavia, 1800–1900 A.D.” The Met. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, October 2008, http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/10/eue.html. Accessed 3 Feb. 2017. “Edvard Munch: Norwegian Painter and Printmaker.” The Art Story Foundation, http://www.theartstory.org/artist-munch-edvard.htm. Accessed 1 May. 2017. Mras, George P. “A Romantic Birch Tree by Johan Christian Clausen Dahl.” Record of the Art Museum, vol. 24, no. 1, 1965, pp. 12-19. Princeton University, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3774349. Accessed March 14, 2017. Philadelphia Museum of Art. “Mermaid.” Philadelphia Museum of Art, 2003, http://www.philamuseum.org/collections/permanent/224544.html . Accessed April 9, 2017. Ritzau, Leth Colleen. “Exhibiting Modernism: A History of the ASF's Exhibition of Contemporary Scandinavian Art and its Legacy.” Scandinavian Review, Autumn 2011, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=f5h&AN=73025718&site=ehost-live. Accessed 3 Feb. 2017. “Romanticism-art.” Norwegian Encyclopedia, 6 May, 2016, https://snl.no/romantikken_-_kunst. Accessed 14 April, 2017. “Scandinavia.” Dictionary.com, 2005, http://www.dictionary.com/browse/scandinavia. Accessed 3 Feb. 2017. “St. Olav's Church.” Nordvegen Historiesenter, http://avaldsnes.info/en/olavskirken/. Accessed 30 April. 2017. “Themes in Danish and Nordic Art.” SMK. Statens Museum for Kunst, 20 Dec. 2016, http://www.smk.dk/en/visit-the-museum/exhibitions/danish-and-nordic-art-1750-1900/themes- in-danish-and-nordic-art-1750-1900/. Accessed 3 Feb. 2017. Zarobell, John. “A Year in Paris: Edvard Munch's "Mermaid."” Philadelphia Museum of Art Bulletin, vol. 93, no. 393/394, Edvard Munch's Mermaid (Summer, 2005), pp. 6-23. Philadelphia Museum of Art, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3795497 . Accessed April 9, 2017. |
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